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Filter feeder

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Krill, a marine arthropod, feeding in a high phytoplankton concentration (slowed by a factor of 12)

Filter feeders are aquatic animals that feed on organic matter, food particles or smaller organisms (bacteria, microalgae and zooplanktons) suspended in water, typically by having the water pass over or through a specialized filtering organ that sieves out and/or traps solids. Filter feeders can play an important role in condensing biomass and removing excess nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphate) from the local waterbody, and are therefore considered water-cleaning ecosystem engineers. They are also important in bioaccumulation and, as a result, are indicator organisms. Filter feeders can be sessile or motile.

Extant species that rely on such method of feeding encompass numerous phyla, including poriferans (sponges), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea pens and corals), arthropods (krill, mysids and barnacles), molluscs including many bivalves, echinoderms (sea lilies) and chordates including most species of forage fish, baleen whales, manta ray, and a few sharks. Some water birds, such as flamingos and some ducks are filter feeders.

History of discovery

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The first filter-feeding mechanism proposed was sieving, by Joshua Alder and Albany Hancock in 1851.[1][2] The sieve theory implies that only particles as big as the mesh of the sieve can be trapped. In 1905, Hans T. S. Wallengren proposed an alternative theory, that sticky limbs of the filters of animals such as mussels could collide with and trap particles smaller than the mesh size.[1][3] In 1968, the New Zealand marine zoologist John S. Bullivant classified suspension feeders in more detail according to their specific methods of feeding, including 'impingement feeding', 'ciliary feeding', 'filter feeding' using mucus, and 'collision feeding'.[4]

Feeding mechanism

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Filter feeding solves the problem of obtaining food from a very dilute suspension in water. It requires in principle a system (such as a muscular pump) that creates a flow of water over a filter (such as gills), and a transport mechanism (such as gill rakers or cilia) to bring food from the filter to the mouth.[1]

Filter feeding is a feeding mechanism used by aquatic animals to gather particles of food from the water around them, by having the water pass over or through a specialized filter that traps solids.[1] An essential component of a filter feeding mechanism is a pump to force a flow of water over the filter. Among benthic invertebrates, some use cilia to create the flow, while others use muscles.[5] Filter-feeders using cilia include tunicates, sponges, bivalves,[6] bryozoans, and some polychaetes.[5] Other polychaetes use muscular mechanisms.[5] Filter feeders can be sessile or mobile, depending on the species and the niches they have evolved to occupy.[4]

The challenge that filter-feeding solves is that food particles are at extremely low density in water, so any animal feeding on suspended particles has to extract the food from a large volume of water. If the feeding system consists of pumping water through a filter, both the pump and the filter need to be efficient. The Bernouilli equation can be used to model the relationship between the pressure, the kinetic energy, and the potential energy. In still water, the kinetic energy of the incoming water is zero, unless the animal has for example a siphon facing into a water current. The flow through a system of tubes such as a filter is reduced by the kinematic viscosity (resistance to flow) of the tubes (described by their low Reynolds number). The kinematic viscosity increases sharply (with the cube of the diameter) as the tubes become narrower, meaning that the finer the filter, the more energy is needed to drive water through it.[7] Among filter-feeding forage fishes such as the herring and pilchard, the flow is created by swimming with the mouth open, resulting in ram feeding, with no buccal pumping by the mouthparts.[8]

Suspension feeders use a wide variety of organs to filter their food out of the water.[4] In 1928, C. M. Yonge listed six types of filter feeding organ:[9]

Types of filter feeding organ identified by C. M. Yonge[9]
Organ makes use ofTaxon
PseudopodiaForaminifera (shelled amoebae)
CiliaPolyzoa (a tunicate)
TentaclesDendrochirotida (sea cucumbers)
MucusVermetus (a gastropod)
MusclesRhizostoma (a jellyfish)
SetaeBarnacles (sessile arthropods)

Given this diversity, in 1968 Bullivant sorted animals by their feeding mechanism into four groups.[4]

Types of filter feeding mechanism identified by J. S. Bullivant[4]
MechanismExample taxaNotes
Impingement feedingLophophorataCilia on tentacles of lophophore create feeding current.
Ciliary feedingSerpulidae (tube-building polychaete worms)Cilia on cirri create feeding current from under the cirri. Cilia then carry food particles from cirri to mouth.
Using mucusPolychaete worms e.g. Chaetopterus, NereisMucous trap.
Collision feedingVermetus (a gastropod)Animal secretes strings of mucus; food particles collide with these.

Ecological effects

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Filter feeders can play an important role in removing excess nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphate) from water bodies, and are therefore considered water-cleaning ecosystem engineers.[10] In addition, they help to stabilise ecosystems, and help to make habitats heterogeneous.[11] They are important in bioaccumulation and as such can serve as indicator organisms.[12]

Taxonomic range

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Filter feeding is found in multiple groups of animals, many of them marine.[13]

Animals

See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 3 4 Rubenstein, Daniel I.; Koehl, Mimi A. R. (September 1977). "The mechanisms of filter feeding: some theoretical considerations". The American Naturalist. 111 (981): 981–994. Bibcode:1977ANat..111..981R. doi:10.1086/283227. JSTOR 2460393.
  2. ↑ Alder, Joshua; Hancock, Albany (1851). "On the branchial currents in Pholus and Mya". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 8 (47): 370. doi:10.1080/03745486109494988.
  3. ↑ Wallengren, Hans Thure Sigurd (1905). "Zur Biologie der Muscheln. I. Die Wasserströmungen" [On the Biology of Mussels. I. The water currents]. Acta Univ. Landwirtschaft (in German). 1: 1–64.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Bullivant, John S. (July 1968). "A Revised Classification of Suspension Feeders". Tuatara. 16 (2): 151–160.
  5. 1 2 3 Riisgård, Hans Ulrik; Larsen, Poul S. (2000). "Comparative ecophysiology of active zoobenthic filter feeding, essence of current knowledge" (PDF). Journal of Sea Research. 44 (3–4): 169–193. Bibcode:2000JSR....44..169R. doi:10.1016/S1385-1101(00)00054-X.
  6. ↑ Foster-Smith, R. L. (1976). "Pressures generated by the pumping mechanism of some ciliary filter-feeders". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 25 (2): 199–206. Bibcode:1976JEMBE..25..199F. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(76)90020-4.
  7. ↑ Riisgård, Hans Ulrik; Larsen, Poul S. (1995). "Filter-feeding in marine macro-invertebrates: pump characteristics, modelling and energy cost". Biological Reviews. 70 (1): 67–106. Bibcode:1995BioRv..70...67R. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1995.tb01440.x. PMID 21545387.
  8. ↑ Hamann, Leandra; Schreiber, Kristina; Hagenmeyer, Jan; Eduardo, Santiago; Spanke, Tobias; Blanke, Alexander (16 October 2023). "Diversity of filter feeding and variations in cross-flow filtration of five ram-feeding fish species". Frontiers in Marine Science. 10 1253083. Bibcode:2023FrMaS..1053083H. doi:10.3389/fmars.2023.1253083.
  9. 1 2 Yonge, C. M. (1926). "Structure and physiology of the organs of feeding and digestion in Ostrea edulis". Journal of the Marine Biology Association UK. 14 (2): 295–386. Bibcode:1926JMBUK..14..295Y. doi:10.1017/S002531540000789X.
  10. ↑ Hobbs, Michelle J.; Yu, Songyan; Kennard, Mark J.; Sheldon, Fran (2026). "Ecology of freshwater mussels, ecosystem engineers: a global review with focus on Hyriidae". Biodiversity and Conservation. 35 (8) 191. Bibcode:2026BiCon..35..191H. doi:10.1007/s10531-026-03390-0. hdl:10072/442585.
  11. ↑ Ostroumov, S. A. (July 2005). "Some Aspects of Water Filtering Activity of Filter-Feeders". Hydrobiologia. 542 (1): 275–286. Bibcode:2005HyBio.542..275O. doi:10.1007/s10750-004-1875-1.
  12. ↑ Ortiz-Moriano, Marta Pilar; Garcia-Vazquez, Eva; Machado-Schiaffino, Gonzalo (2025). "Genes of filter-feeding species as a potential toolkit for monitoring microplastic impacts". Aquatic Toxicology. 279 107234. Bibcode:2025AqTox.27907234O. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2024.107234. PMID 39787666.
  13. ↑ "Non-Molluscan Filter Feeders". SeaMap Australia. Retrieved 16 October 2026.
  14. ↑ Hickman, Cleveland P.; Roberts, Larry S.; Larson, Allan (2001). Integrated principles of zoology (11tj ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-07-118077-1.
  15. ↑ Hinde, Rosalind T. (1998). "The Cnidaria and Ctenophora". In Anderson, D. T. (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–57. ISBN 978-0-19-551368-4.
  16. ↑ Dawoodian, Mazyar; Sau, Amalendu (10 April 2021). "Kinetics and prey capture by a paddling jellyfish: three-dimensional simulation and Lagrangian coherent structure analysis". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 912 A41. Bibcode:2021JFM...912A..41D. doi:10.1017/jfm.2020.1069.
  17. ↑ Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004, pp. 917–918.
  18. ↑ Smith, Allison J.; Nash, Troy R.; Ruppert, Edward E. (2000). "The size range of suspended particles trapped and ingested by the filter-feeding lancelet Branchiostoma floridae (Cephalochordata: Acrania)". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 80 (2): 329–332. Bibcode:2000JMBUK..80..329R. doi:10.1017/S0025315499001903.
  19. ↑ Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004, pp. 940–956.
  20. ↑ "Whale shark". Florida Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 5 September 2006. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  21. ↑ Mitchell, Michaela; Ciampaglio, Charles; Jacquemin, S. J. (1 November 2018). "Convergent evolution in tooth morphology of filter-feeding lamniform sharks". Southeastern Geology. 53: 63–80.
  22. ↑ Hall, Danielle. "The Massive Filter Feeding Shark You Ought to Know". Smithsonian Ocean. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
  23. ↑ Franklin, H. Bruce (March 2006). "Net Losses: Declaring War on the Menhaden". Mother Jones. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
  24. ↑ Bannister, John L. (2008). "Baleen Whales (Mysticetes)". In Perrin, William F.; Würsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J. G. M. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 80–89. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9.
  25. ↑ Rieppel, Olivier (2002). "Feeding mechanics in Triassic stem-group sauropterygians: the anatomy of a successful invasion of Mesozoic seas". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 135 (1): 33–63. doi:10.1046/j.1096-3642.2002.00019.x.
  26. ↑ Naish, D. (2004). "Fossils explained 48. Placodonts". Geology Today. 20 (4): 153–158. Bibcode:2004GeolT..20..153N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2004.00470.x.
  27. ↑ Chun, Li; Rieppel, Olivier; Long, Cheng; Fraser, Nicholas C. (May 2016). "The earliest herbivorous marine reptile and its remarkable jaw apparatus". Science Advances. 2 (5) e1501659. Bibcode:2016SciA....2E1659C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501659. PMC 4928886. PMID 27386529.
  28. ↑ Wilton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15061-1.
  29. ↑ Carnaby, Trevor (2010) [2008]. Beat about the Bush: Birds. Jacana. p. 456. ISBN 978-1-77009-241-9.
  30. ↑ Gotch, A. F. (1995) [1979]. "Albatrosses, Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels". Latin Names Explained A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File. pp. 191–192. ISBN 0-8160-3377-3.
  31. ↑ "Acorn Barnacles". Field Studies Council. 2008. Archived from the original on 16 July 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  32. ↑ Kils, Uwe (1983). S. B. Schnack (ed.). "Swimming and feeding of Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba - some outstanding energetics and dynamics—some unique morphological details" (PDF). Berichte zur Polarforschung (Special Issue 4, On the biology of Krill Euphausia superba). Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research: 130–155 and title page image.
  33. ↑ Patwa, Zaheerabbas; Christensen, Rebecca; Lasenby, David C.; Webster, Eva; Mackay, Donald (1 June 2007). "An exploration of the role of mysids in benthic-pelagic coupling and biomagnification using a dynamic bioaccumulation model". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 26 (6): 1224–1232. Bibcode:2007EnvTC..26.1224P. doi:10.1897/06-441R.1. PMID 17571689.
  34. ↑ Libbie Hyman (1961). "Subclass 1. Branchiopoda". The Invertebrata (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 368–375.
  35. ↑ Sroka, Pavel; Staniczek, Arnold H. (2022). "Evolution of filter-feeding in aquatic insects dates back to the Middle Triassic: New evidence from stem-group mayflies (Insecta, Ephemerida) from Grès à Voltzia, Vosges, France". Papers in Palaeontology. 8 (4) e1456. Bibcode:2022PPal....8E1456S. doi:10.1002/spp2.1456.
  36. ↑ Roberts, Derek (2014). "Mosquito Larvae Change Their Feeding Behavior in Response to Kairomones From Some Predators". Journal of Medical Entomology. 51 (2): 368–374. doi:10.1603/ME13129. PMID 24724285.
  37. ↑ Kurtak, Daniel C. (1978). "Efficiency of filter feeding of black fly larvae (Diptera: Simuliidae)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 56 (7): 1608–1623. Bibcode:1978CaJZ...56.1608K. doi:10.1139/z78-222.
  38. ↑ "Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  39. ↑ Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004, ch. "Lophophorata" sect. "Brachiopoda", pp. 821–829.
  40. ↑ Doherty 2001, sect. "Introduction", "Brachiopoda", pp. 341–342, 356–363. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFDoherty2001 (help)
  41. ↑ Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2004, pp. 817–821.
  42. ↑ Doherty, P. J. (2001). "The Lophophorates". In Anderson, D. T. (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 363–373. ISBN 978-0-19-551368-4.

Sources

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