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Cossack raids

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Cossack raids
Part of the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe and Cossack naval campaigns
Datec. 1492 – 1774 (282 years)
Location
Crimea, Anatolia, Caucasus, lower Dnieper, west Don region, east Danube
Belligerents
Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks
Supported by:
 Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire
Crimean Khanate
Nogai Horde
Supported by:
Commanders and leaders
Notable figures:
Notable figures:

The Cossack raids were a series of military offensives conducted by the Cossacks (the Zaporozhian Cossacks of southern Ukraine and the Don Cossacks of southern Russia) between 1441 and 1774. Primarily occurring in the Crimean Khanate, the Nogai Horde, and the Ottoman Empire, the raids developed as a reaction to the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe. Typical actions during these raids involved freeing enslaved Christians, plundering local settlements, and capturing Muslims for enslavement.[2][3][4] Unlike the Tatars, the Cossacks could threaten fortified positions because of their access to cannons.[5] Though difficult to calculate, the level of devastation caused by the Cossack raids is estimated to have been on a par with that of the Crimean–Nogai slave raids.[6]

Background

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The first Zaporozhian Cossack raid was recorded on 1 August 1492, a raid on the Tatar settlement of Tiahynka.[7] During this period, the Cossacks were less organized; their activities resembled guerrilla warfare or "steppe sport", with back-and-forth raids by Cossacks and Tatars. According to Mykhailo Hrushevsky, being a Cossack during this period was "more an occupation than a social status". This began to change in the 1580s, when Cossacks began acquiring higher social status in their respective states and transformed into regular military formations. Between the 1580s and the mid-17th century, Cossack raids were a major problem for the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire.[6]

Cossack raiders were often successful due to their adoption of gunpowder weaponry, allowing them to match the Crimean-Nogai raiders and Ottomans.[8] The Cossacks also made efficient use of cannons.[1] Many attacks were north of the Black Sea, but the Cossacks also attacked targets deep inside Anatolia (including the Ottoman capital of Istanbul).[9] Zaporozhian sea raids ended in 1648 with the Khmelnytsky Uprising and formation of the Cossack Hetmanate, but Don Cossacks continued sea raiding until the 1660s and 1670s.[10] By the 18th century, Cossack raids decreased in intensity due to increasing Russian control over Cossack hosts and their incorporation into the Imperial Russian Army.[11] The raids ceased in 1783 with the end of Crimean-Nogai raids in Eastern Europe after the Russian annexation of Crimea.

Conflict and raids

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The Cossack conflict with the Tatars and Turks was often waged in parallel with Russia. They also acted independently of each other during the 16th century.[12] The Cossacks preferred offense, but Russia primarily limited itself to passive defense.[13]

Tatar raids

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During the early 16th century Russia reinforced the Oka and Ugra rivers with fortifications and troops, their only defensive measures. The first Crimean raid on Russia took place from 1500 to 1503. The Tatars raided Chernihiv in 1503, and Russian envoys complained to the khan. In 1527, they reached the Oka and plundered Ryazan. From 1580 to 1590, Russia built defensive fortresses along the southern line of Belgorod, Voronezh, Lebedyan, and other cities. Russia was weakened by turmoil from 1607 to 1618, and the Tatars took the opportunity to plunder Bolkhov, Dankov, and Lebedyan despite the defensive line of fortresses.[13]

In 1632, 20,000 Tatars devastated Yelets, Karachev, Livny, and other settlements. The following year, another 20,000-strong Tatar army looted Aleksin, Kaluga, Kashira, and other towns along the Oka; even Moscow, on the other side of the Oka, was affected. Russia ordered the construction of the Belgorod defense line in 1635, which stretched 800 kilometres (500 mi) from the Vorskla tributary of the Dnieper to the Chelnova River. Construction began in 1646, and took over 10 years to complete. Tsar Alexis expanded the defensive line to Russia's Crimean border.[14] Tatar raiders were hardly deterred by these measures, abducting 150,000 to 200,000 people from Russia during the first half of the 17th century.[15] Russia was forced to pay an average of 26,000 rubles annually in tribute to the Crimean Khanate (a total of one million rubles) during that time – according to modern calculations, the cost of building four new cities.[16]

Cossack raids

[edit]
A painting of cavalry soldiers with flags
Cossacks returning from a campaign with Tatar banners

The Cossacks launched raids on land and sea. Cossack cavalry often picked off wandering Tatars along the northern Black Sea coast, plundering Ottoman fortresses on the lower Dnieper and Danube and in Crimea. In 1516, Cossacks besieged the Ottoman fortress in the port of Akkerman. Eight years later, they first attacked Crimea. The Cossacks attacked Ochakov in 1545 and looted its surrounding area, capturing an Ottoman delegation along the way.[17]

Cossack influence rose in the Black Sea during the third quarter of the 16th century, and Ataman Foka Pokatilo's Cossacks devastated Akkerman.[18] In 1575, Ataman Bogdan launched a Crimean campaign in response to Tatar attacks on Ukrainian territory. Bogdan later raided Kozlov, Trebizond, and Sinop. In 1587, Cossacks again attacked Kozlov and Akkerman.[17] The Ottomans responded by establishing the Azov and Ochakov fortresses as a defense against Cossack raids; the Kizil-Kermen, Tavan, and Aslan fortresses were also built on the upper Dnieper and in the Don region. These small fortresses were ineffective at stopping the raiders, however, and the Cossacks learned to bypass them.[19] The areas around Ochakov, Tighina, Akkerman, and Islam-Kermen were raided by the Zaporozhian Cossacks four or five times a year.[20] According to Serhii Lepyavko [uk], the Zaporozhian Cossacks conducted over 40 raids and seized 100,000 cattle, 17,000 horses, and 360,000 złoty between 1570 and the 1580s.[21]

Russian policy and the Cossacks

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Russia began assisting the Cossacks under Ivan the Terrible, providing them with military supplies. Despite this, the ineffective Russian policy of trying to appease the Crimean Khanate continued. Tatar raids continued; unlike their Polish and Swedish counterparts, the Crimean khans were unwilling to negotiate. Russia ordered the Cossacks to stop raiding the Tatars, threatening to cut off their financial and military support, but the Cossacks often ignored these orders. Russia moved forward in cutting off its support, imposing an economic embargo on the Zaporozhian Sich and the Don region.[1]

Russia entered armed confrontations with the Cossacks to appease the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire. During the early 1630s, Russia ordered the Don Cossacks to stop raiding the Tatars and Turks. The Don Cossacks disobeyed these orders, and were willing to revolt. The Zaporozhian Cossacks had minimal connections with Russia during this time, and acted more recklessly.[1]

Assessment

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Russia's ineffectiveness against Tatar raids was attributed to a flawed strategy which sought to appease the raiders, and limited itself to defenses incapable of stopping the raiders or inflicting heavy losses on them. Tatar raiders could be restrained only through offensive action, which the Cossacks frequently conducted.[16] As inhabitants and defenders of border regions, the Cossacks did not limit themselves to defense;[22] they organized defenses that repelled Tatar attacks and, in response to Tatar losses, launched retaliatory strikes.[20] The Cossacks were more effective than Russia against Tatar raids.[16]

Sea raids

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Painting of a crowded, storm-tossed ship
Cossacks on the Black Sea by Ilya Repin, 1908

Black Sea piracy was rare until the Cossacks began conducting sea raids.[23] Until the mid-16th century, maritime Ottoman superiority was undisputed; this changed when the Cossacks began frequent sea raids during the 1550s.[24] Ottoman officials viewed Cossack sea raiding with great concern, fearing an outbreak of banditry in the Black Sea. The Cossacks were better-organized than typical bandits – capable of adapting to harsh frontier conditions and using the environment for their benefit, which allowed them to harass an empire the size of the Ottoman. Cossack society also attracted diverse individuals, from escaped serfs to mercenaries and dissenters from neighboring empires, who found the ungoverned Wild Fields appealing.[23]

For the Cossacks, sea raiding was economical because they had developed a "water culture" from living near rivers. Their boats, known as chaikas, resembled upgraded Viking ships. The Cossacks could call up to 300 chaikas for a campaign, and their boats had greater mobility than Ottoman ships.[25] Cossacks in chaikas were active in the Black Sea.[17]

French military engineer Vasseur de Beauplan provided his account of Cossack sailing:

... The Turks are usually aware of the expedition, and they hold several galleys in readiness at the mouth of the Borysthenes to prevent the Cossacks from coming out to sea. However, the Cossacks, who have greater cunning, sneak out on a dark night close to the new moon, keeping themselves hidden in the reeds that are found for three or four leagues up the Borysthenes, where the galleys dare not venture, having suffered great damage there in the past. The Turks are content to wait at the mouth of the river, where they are always surprised [by the raiders].

However, the Cossacks cannot pass so quickly that they cannot be seen, and the alarm is then sounded throughout the whole country, even as far as Constantinople. The Great Lord [sultan] sends messengers all along the coasts...warning that the Cossacks have put to sea, so that everyone may be on his guard. All is in vain, however, since the Cossacks choose their time and season so advantageously that in 36 or 40 hours they have reached Anatolia. They land, each man carrying his firearm, leaving only two men and two boys on guard in each boat. They surprise the towns, capture them, loot and burn them, venturing sometimes as far as a league inland. Then they return immediately [to their boats] and embark with their booty, to try their luck elsewhere.[25]

Impact of sea raids

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The partially-successful need to counter Cossack sea raids led the Ottomans to withdraw a significant portion of their naval forces from the Mediterranean Sea, weakening their influence. Cossack sea raids also had an economic impact, discouraging trade on the Ottoman shore due to the risk of attack.[26] As explorer Evliya Çelebi noted, the rural population of Sinop was unwilling to engage in agriculture because they believed their harvest would be destroyed during Cossack attacks.[23]

Cossack raids demonstrated in the long term that the Ottoman Empire, which had conquered southeast Europe centuries before, was not invincible and its era of influence over European affairs was coming to an end.[26] European and Ottoman chronicles of the devastation caused by Cossack sea raids resembled those describing Gothic sea attacks on the Byzantine Empire during the fifth century.[27]

Impact

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Crimean Khanate and Nogai Horde

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Painting of an old, mustacioed Cossack
Ivan Sirko; detail from a painting by Ilya Repin

When exploring Crimea, Evliya Çelebi noted signs of depopulation and attributed them to Cossack raids.[28][failed verification] In addition to devastating Tatar lands, Cossack raids deterred Tatar raiders from attacking Ukrainian lands.[29] Cossack raiding also had a psychological effect on the Tatars, especially during the era of Cossack leader Ivan Sirko. Polish chronicler Wespazjan Kochowski described the Tatar attitude toward Sirko in Crimea:

He was terrible in the Horde, for he was experienced in military campaigns and a brave cavalier, surpassing Doroshenko in this. And in the Crimea, his name inspired such fear that the Horde was on guard every day and was ready for battle, as if Sirko had already attacked. The Tatars quite seriously considered him a devil and even their children, when they cried and could not calm down, frightened Sirko, saying: 'Sirko is coming', after these words the crying immediately died down ...[30]

Ottoman Empire

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Painting of three large ships, surrounded by smaller boats
The Turkish fleet repelling a Cossack attack

Cossack raids inflicted significant economic losses on the Ottoman Empire, resulting in a decline of its military power.[1][29] The raids also had a psychological impact, particularly the Zaporozhian raids from 1672 to 1674.[31] An influential Ottoman sultan reportedly admitted that thinking about the Cossacks kept him awake at night.[9]

Sultan Mehmed IV demanded in 1675 that the Zaporozhian Cossacks, led by Ivan Sirko, submit to Ottoman rule. The Cossacks responded with a letter full of profanity and insults.[32] This inspired the most popular painting in Ukrainian-Russian history, Ilya Repin's Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks.[33]

Europe

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The Zaporozhian Cossacks were more adaptable than their Tatar counterparts. During the 16th century, Chevalier wrote: "There was no warrior better fitted to outfight a Tatar than a Zaporozhian". Ottoman sultans often complained to the neighboring states about Zaporozhian attacks, but their rulers denied any association with them.[34] The Tatars and Turks sometimes inflicted considerable losses on the Cossacks. In 1593, the Tatars burnt Tomakivka Sich while the Cossacks were away. The Zaporozhian host had no trouble recruiting and building a new fleet in a short time, but struggled to find horses. Pope Clement VIII, Polish kings, and even Habsburg emperors recognized Cossack efficiency in fighting the Ottomans and sought them as allies. Tsar Feodor I described the Zaporozhian Cossacks to the Austrian delegation as "good fighters, but cruel and treacherous".[35]

Italian Dominican missionary Emidio Portelli d'Ascoli said about the brutality of Cossack raids, "The Cossacks destroy, rob, burn, lead off into slavery, kill; often they besiege fortified cities, take them by storm, devastate, and burn them down".[36] French military engineer Vasseur de Beauplan agreed:

It is these people [Cossacks] who often, [indeed] almost every year, go raiding on the Black Sea, to the great detriment of the Turks. Many times they have plundered Crimea, which belongs to Tatary, ravaged Anatolia, sacked Trebizond, and even ventured as far as the mouth of the Black Sea, three leagues from Constantinople, where they have laid waste to everything with fire and sword, returning home with much booty and a number of slaves, usually young children, whom they keep for their own service or give as gifts to the lords of their homeland. No old people are detained, unless they are judged rich enough to buy their freedom by paying ransom.[37]

List of Cossack raids

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This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by editing the page to add missing items, with references to reliable sources.
Cossack raids
Name Date Location Perpetrators Result Notes
Raid on Tiahynka 1 August 1492 Tiahynka Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory First documented Zaporozhian raid
Sack of Ochakov[38] 1493 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Aq Kirmān[39] 1516 Aq Kirmān Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Crimean campaign[40] 1523 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Polish-Cossack raid on Ochakov[38] End of 1528 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Capture of Ochakov[41] 23 October 1545 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Crimean campaign September 1575 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Battle of Azov[42] 1576 Azov Don Cossacks Defeat
Moldavian campaign 11–29 November 1577 Moldavia Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Crimean campaign July 1589 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Inconclusive
Moldavian campaigns 1593–1595 Moldavia Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Kiliia 1602 Kiliya Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Kiliya and Aq Kirmān 1606 Kiliya and Aq Kirmān Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Battle of Varna Summer 1606 Varna Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Ochakov 1607 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Perekop 1608 Perekop Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on the Danube 1608 Danube delta Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Kiliya, Izmail and Aq Kirmān 1609 Kiliya, Izmail and Aq Kirmān Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Northern Anatolia 1613 Northern Anatolia Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Sinop 1614 Sinop Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Istanbul 1615 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Battle of Kaffa 1616 Kaffa Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on North Anatolia 1616 Northern Anatolia Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Istanbul 1617 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Istanbul 1620 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Varna 25 August 1620 Varna Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on the Black Sea[43] 1621 Kaffa, Bosporus strait Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Trebizond[44] 1621 Trebizond Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Rize[44] 1621 Rize Zaporozhian Cossacks Defeat
Siege of Soroca 1621 Soroca Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory Yakiv Borodavka's Cossacks besieged and sacked the city that summer.[45]
Battle of Bosporus[43] July 1622 Bosporus strait Zaporozhian Cossacks Defeat
Raids on Istanbul[43] 1623 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raids on Istanbul 9 July – 8 September 1624 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Battle of Karaharman 1625 Karaharman Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Defeat
Battle of Poti 1626 Poti Zaporozhian Cossacks Defeat
Raid on Istanbul 1629 Istanbul Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Battle of Ochakov 1630 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Defeat
Raid on Trebizond[46] 1631 Trebizond Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Raids on Azov[43] 1634 Azov Don Cossacks Indecisive The Cossacks, although they did not capture the fortress, looted Azov.
Siege of Azov 21 April 1637 – 30 April 1642 Azov Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Attack on Azov[47] October 1644 Azov Don Cossacks Victory
Battle of Taman[48] June 1646 Taman Don Cossacks Defeat
Raid on Azov[31] 1646 Azov Don Cossacks Defeat
Crimean campaign 1646 Crimea Don Cossacks Defeat
Raid on Temryuk[48] 1648 Temryuk Don Cossacks Victory
Raid on Sinop[31] 1651 Sinop Don Cossacks Victory
Raid on Istanbul[31] 1652 Istanbul Don Cossacks Victory
Battle of Batumi[31] 1652 Batumi Zaporozhian Cossacks Defeat
Devastation of Southern Crimea 1653 Southern Crimea Don Cossacks Victory Don Cossacks ravaged the southern Crimean coast from Sudak to Balaklava for three months.[31]
Raid on Trebizond[31] 1653 Trebizond Don Cossacks Victory
Crimean blockade 6 July – 14 September 1655 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory The Cossacks seized Taman Peninsula and terrorized Crimea for two months.[31]
Raid on Ochakov[31] 1660 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Aslan-Kermen 1660 Aslan-Kermen Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Crimea[31] 1660 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Siege of Perekop 1663 Perekop Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Crimean campaign 1667 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Crimean campaigns (1668) October – November 1668 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Siege of Ochakov 20 June 1670 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Budjak May 1673 Budjak Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Aq Kirmān May 1673 Aq Kirmān Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Ochakov[31] May 1673 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Aslan-Kermen May 1673 Aslan-Kermen Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Izmail May 1673 Izmail Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Crimea[31] May 1673 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Crimean campaign (1675) 23 – 29 September 1675 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory The Cossacks captured Bakhchysarai.[49]
Battle of Temryuk[50] 1678 Temryuk Don Cossacks Defeat Ataman Radion Kaluzhenin and Esaul Fedor Murzin were killed.
Raid on Crimea 1679 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory Ivan Sirko forced Khan Murad Giray to flee into the Crimean mountains.[51]
Raids on Azov and Temryuk[48] 1685 Azov, Temryuk Don Cossacks Victory
Battle of Don River[50] 1687 Don River Don Cossacks Defeat Ataman Pyotr Kalmyk was captured and executed.
Raid on Ochakov[52] 1690 Ochakov Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Kizil-Taş[48] 1692 Kizil-Taş Don Cossacks Victory
Raid on Kizikermen[52] 1693 Kizikermen Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raids on Temyruk and Kizil-Taş[53] 1694 Temyruk, Kizil-Taş Don Cossacks

Zaporozhian Cossacks

 Victory
Crimean campaign 1737 Crimea Zaporozhian Cossacks
Don Cossacks		 Victory
Raid on Balta 1768 Balta Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory The Cossack sack of Balta was a pretext for the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774).[54]
Raid on Dubăsari[55] 1768 Dubăsari

Zaporozhian Cossacks

 Victory
Raids on Kinburn[56] 1769 Kinburn Peninsula Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory
Raid on Hacı-Hassan[56] 1769 Hacı-Hassan Zaporozhian Cossacks Victory

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Şirokorad 2009, p. 56.
  2. ↑ Orest Subtelny (1988). Ukraine: A history. University of Toronto Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-8020-8390-6. Archived from the original on 2020-07-29. Retrieved 2018-05-13 – via Google Books.
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  5. ↑ Williams 2013, p. 17.
  6. 1 2 Roşu 2021, p. 253.
  7. ↑ Seaton 1996, p. 34.
  8. ↑ Roşu 2021, p. 259, "A crucial difference between Slavic cossacks and Tatars gazags was that the former successfully adapted gunpowder weaponry that gave them an advantage over the peoples of the steppe and allowed them to even face up to the Ottomans.".
  9. 1 2 Seeger, Elizabeth (1950). The Pageant of Russian History. Legare Street Press. p. 122. ISBN 101642857X. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  10. ↑ Roşu 2021, p. 264.
  11. ↑ Williams 2013, p. 18.
  12. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, pp. 47–48.
  13. 1 2 Şirokorad 2009, p. 48.
  14. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, p. 49.
  15. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, pp. 49–50.
  16. 1 2 3 Şirokorad 2009, p. 50.
  17. 1 2 3 Şirokorad 2009, p. 51.
  18. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, pp. 50–51.
  19. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, pp. 52–53.
  20. 1 2 Ивануц 2012, p. 332.
  21. ↑ Ивануц 2012, p. 334.
  22. ↑ Ивануц 2012, p. 330.
  23. 1 2 3 King 2005, p. 130.
  24. ↑ King 2005, pp. 132–133.
  25. 1 2 King 2005, p. 131.
  26. 1 2 King 2005, p. 133.
  27. ↑ King 2005, pp. 129–130.
  28. ↑ Davies 2007, p. 192.
  29. 1 2 Сас, П. (2006). Петро Конашевич-Сагайдачний: молоді роки (in Ukrainian). Київ: Інститут історії України НАН України. p. 208. ISBN 966-02-4172-0.
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  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Şirokorad 2009, p. 61.
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  33. ↑ Władysław Andrzej Serczyk (2009). Historia Ukrainy (in Polish). Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich - Wydawn. p. 125. ISBN 978-8304049383.
  34. ↑ Seaton 1996, p. 38.
  35. ↑ Seaton 1996, p. 39.
  36. ↑ Roşu 2021, p. 276.
  37. ↑ Roşu 2021, pp. 280–281.
  38. 1 2 Grushevskyi, Mykhailo. History of Ukraine-Rus', Volume VII, Part I. p. 9.
  39. ↑ Воронов, Сергій Олександрович (2008). Енциклопедія морських катастроф України: затонулі пам'ятки античної, середньовічної і новітньої історії : залишки міст і поселень, військові кораблі, цивільні судна, авіа- та бронетехніка (in Ukrainian). Видавництво "Богдана". ISBN 978-966-7058-99-9.
  40. ↑ Сорока, Юрій (2020-01-10). Дмитрий Байда Вишневецкий (in Russian). Glagoslav Publications. ISBN 978-966-03-8480-4.
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  42. ↑ David Nicolle & Viacheslav Shpakovsky, Armies of Ivan the Terrible: Russian Troops 1505–1700, Bloomsbury, 2024, p.5
  43. 1 2 3 4 Шляхторов, Алексей (2017-01-11). Без Крыма России не быть! «Место силы» всей Русской Земли (in Russian). Эксмо: Яуза. ISBN 978-5-04-037202-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  44. 1 2 Paradowski, Micha (2023-09-25). The Khotyn Campaign of 1621: Polish, Lithuanian and Cossack Armies versus might of the Ottoman Empire. Helion and Company. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-80451-499-3.
  45. ↑ Alanovych, Olena Mykhailivna (1621). Розповіді про запорозьких козаків (PDF). Kyiv. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9785308013716. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  46. ↑ Brekhunenko, Viktor (2007). Morsʹki viĭny ukraïnsʹkykh kozakiv (in Ukrainian). PP Natalii︠a︡ Brekhunenko. p. 63. ISBN 978-966-02-4442-9.
  47. ↑ Magocsi, Paul Robert (2010). Early Ukraine: A Military and Social History to the Mid-19th Century. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-4766-2022-0. Retrieved 2025-09-29.
  48. 1 2 3 4 Автор неизвестен. "Морские походы донских казаков на таманские владения Османской империи в XVII веке". CyberLeninka. Retrieved 27 September 2025.
  49. ↑ Şirokorad 2009, p. 62.
  50. 1 2 Shapovalov, Sergey N. "Naval Campaigns of the Don Cossacks Against the Taman Territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th Century". CyberLeninka. Retrieved 27 September 2025.
  51. ↑ Leszek Podhorodecki (1978). Sicz Zaporoska (in Polish). Książka i Wiedza. p. 193.
  52. 1 2 Ohloblyn, Oleksander (1960). Гетьман Іван Мазепа та його доба: праці Історично-філософічної секції (in Ukrainian). Вид. Організації оборони чотирьох свобід України. p. 49. ISBN 978-966-76-3159-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  53. ↑ Heywood, Colin (2020). The Treaties of Carlowitz (1699): Antecedents, Course and Consequences. Brill. p. 195. ISBN 978-90-04-41428-0. Retrieved 2025-09-29.
  54. ↑ Martin Sicker (2000). The Islamic World in Decline. Praeger. pp. 69–70. ISBN 3540606912.
  55. ↑ "Кампания в Подолии и на Волыни в 1768 г." runivers.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 2025-05-20.
  56. 1 2 "Запорозька кіннота в Російсько-Турецькій війні 1768-1774 рр. - Історія України - статті - шкільна програма 12 класів". uahistory.co (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 2025-09-24.

Bibliography

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